Cultural interview

Adriana was going to react to certain topics/questions and this made me apprehensive about conducting the interview. I was nervous that she might feel vulnerable about her hearing impediment since she is a private individual. She was ridiculed in school and did not have many friends. I was unaware if Adriana would avoid questions or become emotional about her childhood. I was also apprehensive about mentioning her nationality and if she felt that she had experienced racism. I remained empathetic and nonjudgmental throughout the entire interview.Adriana is currently a 33-year-old Mexican American left handed female with a hearing disability. She currently has no hearing in her right ear and has only 10% in her left ear. She has two hearing aids and is able to communicate by reading lips, text messaging, and by email. She is not able to communicate utilizing a telephone. She has been bilingual (Spanish and English) since the age of about five. Adriana lost most of hearing at the age of seven because she was afflicted with polio. She mentioned that she was sick for a week and was never hospitalized.She suffered from high fevers and lost the majority of her hearing over the course of a eek. She went from being able to hear the chirping ofa bird to only being able to hear muffled voices! She obtained hearing aids about two weeks after being afflicted with polio. She went through extensive amounts of speech therapy during and outside of the school setting. However, she has always excelled academically in school. She claims that most of the teachers were accommodating and let her sit in the front of the class. However, she did mention that she was ridiculed throughout her grade school years.She claims that her classmates would throw â€Å"spit balls† at her and make fun of her speech impediment. She never lashed out at people and tried to ignore their immature behavior. She mentions that she was lucky to have older brothers that were very protective. Many peopl e felt that she was â€Å"freeloading† because of her Mexican heritage and did not get to know her or even recognize that she was also an American. She mentioned that her parents came to America legally n their green cards) and became Mexican American citizens. Adriana mentioned that she was not popular and only associated with a few friends.She was very emotional during this topic! She would â€Å"tear up† at times because she felt like she was reliving bad memories. She felt like no one could relate to her because no one else had a disability and was a â€Å"minority. † It was also hard for her to realize that her hearing was gradually deteriorating! She currently has a Bachelor's Degree in Media and the Fine Arts and an Associate's Degree in Medical Billing and Coding. She is currently working at a doctor's office part time utilizing her Medical Billing and Coding degree.She does not seem passionate about her Job because she is in a private office (by herself ) doing computer coding. She feels excluded because she cannot fulfill the entire Job description. She is only able to complete the paperwork/ omputer portion of her current position. She is unable to communicate by telephone and feels incompetent because of her speech/hearing impediment. She always dreamt about becoming a nurse and wanted to follow in the footsteps of her older siblings. She knew that she would be unable to fulfill her dream because her hearing loss would affect her Job performance.Despite struggling and having a low self esteem, she found a husband that is able to look past her disability. Her body language and tone of voice seemed to change when we were talking about her husband. She seemed to be very comfortable talking about him and was very open bout answering questions. Her face lit up, there was excitement in her answers, and she appeared less tense. She has been married for five years to her husband named Gabriel and resides in Portage, Indiana. She has no children but has two cats and dogs! She constantly has nephews and nieces that spend the night.They refer to her as the â€Å"favorite† aunt. She stated, â€Å"l love spending time with my nieces and nephews, however when I have had enough then I can send them home. † They call her â€Å"Auntie Nana† and she displays their artwork proudly throughout her house and on the refrigerator. Adriana grew up in a single-family household in Whiting, Indiana. Her father was in her life for about seven years. She claims that he cheated on her mother and she kicked him out of the house. Adriana is a middle child of four brothers and sisters. Her mother worked at a nursing home as a Janitor and did not make much money.Her older brother and sister would often look after the younger children when her mother was at work. She was raised Catholic and presently attends church weekly. She grew up in a bilingual and strict household. She was expected to have chores and homework done by the time her mother was home. She still remains close with her family and sees them on a regular basis. I was shocked to find out that she has not spoken to her father for almost a decade. She also confided in me that she has about 15 half brothers/sisters from her father's â€Å"mistresses. She has emailed four of them and does not know anything about the other siblings. I was also amazed that since she has such a large Mexican family, she only participates in some Mexican traditions. She mentioned that her large, extended family gathers together for birthdays, Cinco de Mayo, and holidays. They typically indulge in Mexican Cuisine, such as: tamales, guacamole, tacos, and flautas. She stated that growing up with a disability and being Mexican was never easy. Adriana mentioned that she experienced racism when she was younger. She experienced racial profiling and was referred to as a â€Å"Spic. They would ask her if sne nad a green card and it sne was an illegal alien. Her mothe r's lower socioeconomic status was reflected in Adriana's wardrobe. She also mentioned she received free and reduced school lunches. Her classmates ridiculed her for all of these things. She did not socialize with many students and often sat by herself in the cafeteria. She felt alone because of her disability and race. She often felt that eople were making fun of her and talking behind her back. In her current work environment she often feels looked down upon because of her hearing disability.Adriana still has an upbeat personality despite all of the adversities in her life. She views herself as being successful and accomplished. She overcame the odds and went to college and obtained two degrees. She is married, has a Job, and owns a home. She credits much of her success to having a supportive and loving family. Her mother always encouraged and inspired her to pursue her dreams and never treated her differently from any of her other siblings (without disabilities). Adriana was rais ed with love and discipline. Her mother was never embarrassed to punish her or her siblings in public.They were taught that nothing is free and that they have to work hard for what they have. There are three nurses in her family and each of her siblings has their own homes and Jobs. She did mention that she grew up in a poverty stricken environment. Her mother was on welfare and food stamps throughout the course of her childhood. Her clothing was either from Goodwill and/ or second hand clothing from her older siblings. She lived in a three-bedroom house and shared a room with four of her sisters. As a counselor, I have learned not to have a pre-conceived notion about a client.I have also learned that you cannot Judge a book by its cover. Adriana has overcome many obstacles/hurdles in her life that most people could never imagine. She is legally â€Å"deaf† and has never once given up on pursuing her goals. She mentioned that she is a candidate for the cochlear implant but do es not want to undergo the procedure. She assured me that she has learned to adjust her life around her hearing deficit. I have learned that she is not defined by her disability but by her ability! I felt empathetic towards the amount of bullying that she had endured.She was never once vengeful but was saddened that certain individuals could physically and emotionally torment someone. As a counselor, I would advocate for this client by helping her obtain information on disability and social security. Due to her socioeconomic status, transportation may need to be provided for appointments to/from the counseling sessions. I would also provide her with a list of vocational rehabilitation offices to help her obtain information related to employment, assistive technology, and transition services.Other resources that can be valuable to Adriana include a sign language translator and a videophone. I can also provide information on support groups for individuals with hearing disabilities. I feel that she would benefit from individual and family counseling despite having a positive outlook on her scenario. This interview made me realize that someone with a minority/disability can overcome obstacles that seem nonexistent to someone without a disability or a minority. She may have had many struggles throughout her life, but was fortunate to have the support of her mother nd siblings.Even though Adriana is a minority with a disability, she has a positive attitude towards life. She takes everything in stride and does not want sympathy. Adriana has always been successful and seems to excel despite her disability. Overcoming many adversities, sne remains optimistic about ner tuture. She is ag advocate and role model for minorities with a disability. She is a role model to her nieces and nephews. She constantly encourages them to pursue their dreams and a higher education. She does not let her disability limit her lifestyle or outlook on life. Cultural interview Adriana was going to react to certain topics/questions and this made me apprehensive about conducting the interview. I was nervous that she might feel vulnerable about her hearing impediment since she is a private individual. She was ridiculed in school and did not have many friends. I was unaware if Adriana would avoid questions or become emotional about her childhood. I was also apprehensive about mentioning her nationality and if she felt that she had experienced racism. I remained empathetic and nonjudgmental throughout the entire interview.Adriana is currently a 33-year-old Mexican American left handed female with a hearing disability. She currently has no hearing in her right ear and has only 10% in her left ear. She has two hearing aids and is able to communicate by reading lips, text messaging, and by email. She is not able to communicate utilizing a telephone. She has been bilingual (Spanish and English) since the age of about five. Adriana lost most of hearing at the age of seven because she was afflicted with polio. She mentioned that she was sick for a week and was never hospitalized.She suffered from high fevers and lost the majority of her hearing over the course of a eek. She went from being able to hear the chirping ofa bird to only being able to hear muffled voices! She obtained hearing aids about two weeks after being afflicted with polio. She went through extensive amounts of speech therapy during and outside of the school setting. However, she has always excelled academically in school. She claims that most of the teachers were accommodating and let her sit in the front of the class. However, she did mention that she was ridiculed throughout her grade school years.She claims that her classmates would throw â€Å"spit balls† at her and make fun of her speech impediment. She never lashed out at people and tried to ignore their immature behavior. She mentions that she was lucky to have older brothers that were very protective. Many peopl e felt that she was â€Å"freeloading† because of her Mexican heritage and did not get to know her or even recognize that she was also an American. She mentioned that her parents came to America legally n their green cards) and became Mexican American citizens. Adriana mentioned that she was not popular and only associated with a few friends.She was very emotional during this topic! She would â€Å"tear up† at times because she felt like she was reliving bad memories. She felt like no one could relate to her because no one else had a disability and was a â€Å"minority. † It was also hard for her to realize that her hearing was gradually deteriorating! She currently has a Bachelor's Degree in Media and the Fine Arts and an Associate's Degree in Medical Billing and Coding. She is currently working at a doctor's office part time utilizing her Medical Billing and Coding degree.She does not seem passionate about her Job because she is in a private office (by herself ) doing computer coding. She feels excluded because she cannot fulfill the entire Job description. She is only able to complete the paperwork/ omputer portion of her current position. She is unable to communicate by telephone and feels incompetent because of her speech/hearing impediment. She always dreamt about becoming a nurse and wanted to follow in the footsteps of her older siblings. She knew that she would be unable to fulfill her dream because her hearing loss would affect her Job performance.Despite struggling and having a low self esteem, she found a husband that is able to look past her disability. Her body language and tone of voice seemed to change when we were talking about her husband. She seemed to be very comfortable talking about him and was very open bout answering questions. Her face lit up, there was excitement in her answers, and she appeared less tense. She has been married for five years to her husband named Gabriel and resides in Portage, Indiana. She has no children but has two cats and dogs! She constantly has nephews and nieces that spend the night.They refer to her as the â€Å"favorite† aunt. She stated, â€Å"l love spending time with my nieces and nephews, however when I have had enough then I can send them home. † They call her â€Å"Auntie Nana† and she displays their artwork proudly throughout her house and on the refrigerator. Adriana grew up in a single-family household in Whiting, Indiana. Her father was in her life for about seven years. She claims that he cheated on her mother and she kicked him out of the house. Adriana is a middle child of four brothers and sisters. Her mother worked at a nursing home as a Janitor and did not make much money.Her older brother and sister would often look after the younger children when her mother was at work. She was raised Catholic and presently attends church weekly. She grew up in a bilingual and strict household. She was expected to have chores and homework done by the time her mother was home. She still remains close with her family and sees them on a regular basis. I was shocked to find out that she has not spoken to her father for almost a decade. She also confided in me that she has about 15 half brothers/sisters from her father's â€Å"mistresses. She has emailed four of them and does not know anything about the other siblings. I was also amazed that since she has such a large Mexican family, she only participates in some Mexican traditions. She mentioned that her large, extended family gathers together for birthdays, Cinco de Mayo, and holidays. They typically indulge in Mexican Cuisine, such as: tamales, guacamole, tacos, and flautas. She stated that growing up with a disability and being Mexican was never easy. Adriana mentioned that she experienced racism when she was younger. She experienced racial profiling and was referred to as a â€Å"Spic. They would ask her if sne nad a green card and it sne was an illegal alien. Her mothe r's lower socioeconomic status was reflected in Adriana's wardrobe. She also mentioned she received free and reduced school lunches. Her classmates ridiculed her for all of these things. She did not socialize with many students and often sat by herself in the cafeteria. She felt alone because of her disability and race. She often felt that eople were making fun of her and talking behind her back. In her current work environment she often feels looked down upon because of her hearing disability.Adriana still has an upbeat personality despite all of the adversities in her life. She views herself as being successful and accomplished. She overcame the odds and went to college and obtained two degrees. She is married, has a Job, and owns a home. She credits much of her success to having a supportive and loving family. Her mother always encouraged and inspired her to pursue her dreams and never treated her differently from any of her other siblings (without disabilities). Adriana was rais ed with love and discipline. Her mother was never embarrassed to punish her or her siblings in public.They were taught that nothing is free and that they have to work hard for what they have. There are three nurses in her family and each of her siblings has their own homes and Jobs. She did mention that she grew up in a poverty stricken environment. Her mother was on welfare and food stamps throughout the course of her childhood. Her clothing was either from Goodwill and/ or second hand clothing from her older siblings. She lived in a three-bedroom house and shared a room with four of her sisters. As a counselor, I have learned not to have a pre-conceived notion about a client.I have also learned that you cannot Judge a book by its cover. Adriana has overcome many obstacles/hurdles in her life that most people could never imagine. She is legally â€Å"deaf† and has never once given up on pursuing her goals. She mentioned that she is a candidate for the cochlear implant but do es not want to undergo the procedure. She assured me that she has learned to adjust her life around her hearing deficit. I have learned that she is not defined by her disability but by her ability! I felt empathetic towards the amount of bullying that she had endured.She was never once vengeful but was saddened that certain individuals could physically and emotionally torment someone. As a counselor, I would advocate for this client by helping her obtain information on disability and social security. Due to her socioeconomic status, transportation may need to be provided for appointments to/from the counseling sessions. I would also provide her with a list of vocational rehabilitation offices to help her obtain information related to employment, assistive technology, and transition services.Other resources that can be valuable to Adriana include a sign language translator and a videophone. I can also provide information on support groups for individuals with hearing disabilities. I feel that she would benefit from individual and family counseling despite having a positive outlook on her scenario. This interview made me realize that someone with a minority/disability can overcome obstacles that seem nonexistent to someone without a disability or a minority. She may have had many struggles throughout her life, but was fortunate to have the support of her mother nd siblings.Even though Adriana is a minority with a disability, she has a positive attitude towards life. She takes everything in stride and does not want sympathy. Adriana has always been successful and seems to excel despite her disability. Overcoming many adversities, sne remains optimistic about ner tuture. She is ag advocate and role model for minorities with a disability. She is a role model to her nieces and nephews. She constantly encourages them to pursue their dreams and a higher education. She does not let her disability limit her lifestyle or outlook on life.

The Theme of “A Worn Path”

The Theme of â€Å"A Worn Path† Charlotte Schroeder Ashford University 03/04/2013 ENG 125 Instructor Abby Forster In the short story â€Å"A Worn Path†, the author Eudora Welty, created a strong theme of undying love with an old woman and her grandson. The main character in this story is called Phoenix; she is an old woman that is narrated from the author trying to make a long journey down a worn path to bring her sick grandson medicine. She will not let anything get in her way from completing her mission and will not give up even though she is not a young puppy anymore.She is the last living relative to her young grandson and she keeps strong to fulfill his needs and keep him happy. The author uses great symbolism in the short story throughout the entire story. Religion, racism, and true love all play a key role in the theme of â€Å"A Worn Path†; it has strong literary elements that take this story to higher limits. The story does not tell us where the mother i s, however shows us how strong Phoenix is in her journey with characters making us know how bad racism is and how God is strong with her in her mission.Anyone that has children would not stop at anything to save them; Phoenix’s journey down a worn path proves it. This story is about a grandmother, Phoenix, walking through treacherous woods to get some medicine for her grandson that is sick that may or may not help him. The story is told in the third-person, â€Å"Third-person point of view which occurs when the speaker is not a participant in the story. It has two forms: omniscient point of view and objective point of view. † (Cited in Clugston, 2010) The author uses a narrative approach with the main character; it shows her thoughts and feelings throughout the entire story.She speaks to herself with a single purpose, devotion to her grandson in the doctor’s clinic. She must get to him at no cost since she is poor. The story’s theme is about undying love for a grandmother and grandson; it explains her struggles against aging since she has walked this path since the civil war. The narrative story expresses a lot of symbolic characters, first it starts with the name Phoenix which stands for the mythical creature that rises from its own ashes. â€Å"The use of symbolic characters throughout the story is explained.The author provides a critical interpretation and offers different meaning behind several elements. † (Cited in Clugston, 2010) Phoenix is faced with getting old and losing her mind, she is very afraid of it, but still carries on with the strength of God with her. Religion plays a key role to keeping her mind and strength strong and even beat racism with the characters she met along the way and interacts with. It starts with a cold month in December for the setting that makes you feel compassion for the main character and brings a thought of stagnation and sleeep.The story’s author sets a picture in your head fir st, â€Å"The setting is rural, a cold, early morning in December in the South. † (Cited in Clugston, 2010) The main character is a Negro woman that is an old lady and has been through many life situations. The story uses settings to establish many points for the theme and details of wagon tracks used to tell us she is following a familiar path. â€Å"On she went. The woods were deep and still. The sun made the pine needles almost too bright to look at, up where the wind rocked. The cones dropped as light as feathers.Down in the hollow was morning dove- it was not too late for him. † )Cited in Clugston, 2010, â€Å"A Worn Path†, para. 3) This is the â€Å"easy part† of her new journey since she will face a hunter and a nurse along the way. She meets a white hunter with a dog; they represent external conflicts that she must deal with. The hunter helps her out of a ditch that she has fallen in, however irony is used since he puts a gun in her face that also resembles racism. She compares her bones to weeds springy enough not to have been broken by the fall into the ditch.The hunter speaks down to her since he thinks she is a crazy old black woman trying to go see Santa Clause for presents. She finds a nickel in her pocket, â€Å"God watching me the whole time. I come to stealing,† she knows that she must keep going with god’s help. However, she does not let this get her down since religion played a big role in her life and she has encountered much worse. Next, the author tells how Phoenix is feeling, â€Å"Seem like there is chains about my feet, time I get this far†, this symbolizes chains are like a struggle for her. Cited in Clugston, 2010, â€Å"A Worn Path† para. 10) She is faced with buzzards that symbolize death for her and oak trees that symbolize strength and wisdom since she was strong with life still. â€Å"She passed through the old cotton and went into a field of dead corn†, this showed how devoted her love was to pass through death defying places. (Cited in Clugston, 2010) Also, when she drank water, â€Å"In a ravine she went where a spring was silently flowing through a hollow log. Old Phoenix bent back and drank†, it symbolized a source of life and regeneration. Cited in Clugston, 2010, â€Å"A Worn Path† para. 14) All of these literary elements contributed to the short story and theme. When Phoenix arrives in the city she sees Christmas lights that are red, green, and silver that look like presents, which made religion come to play again. She encounters a nurse when she arrives finally to the doctor’s clinic. The nurse thinks that she is very poor and gives her another nickel to help her. All Phoenix wants is to see her grandson happy so she takes the two nickels and buys him a pinwheel to make him smile.Besides the medicine she has for him, she wanted to make him know he was loved and wanted to give a present. In the end the author made m e feel the undying love that a grandmother can have for her grandson. She took a hard path in spite of her old age to make her grandson get what he needed, medicine, and a smile. Her journey faced racism, religion, and death that she overcame with the love she had in her soul, it would not die even if she got hurt. The medicine did not work in the past for her sick grandson, however she thought it might help to cure him with love.Everyone that has experienced a mother’s love or grandmother’s would know that they will not stop for anything to give their undying love. References A Worn Path, Edora Welty-Introduction. Critism. ED. Anna J. Sheets. Vol. 27 April, 2012 Retrieved from: http://www. enotes. com/worn-path-critcism/worn-path Clugston, R. W. (2010). Journey into literature. Retrieved from: https://content. ashford. edu Lappin, A. Studia Neophilologic June, 2012, Vol. 84 Issue 1, p33Retrieved from: http://www. ashford. edu/ehost/books

Book Summary: the Bible Among the Myths by John N. Oswalt Essay

John Oswalt, in his book The Bible Among the Myths, presents his position to the reader that the bible is different and separate from other writings of the Ancient Near East. He asserts the Bible is both historically accurate and theologically sound. He makes the defense the Bible was divinely inspired and revealed to humanity and unique from other Ancient Near East literature. There was a time when the Bible, and the Israelite religion was different from its neighboring societies. But as times have changed, many people now lump the bible with other Ancient Near East myths. The book is broken up into two sections. The first half of the book, â€Å"The Bible and Myth,† Oswalt takes the time to define what a myth is and what differentiates the Bible from a myth. He then describes the different between the worldview of the Ancient Near East and continuity is different from the Bible’s transcendence. The second half of the book, â€Å"The Bible and History,† examines several philosophical thoughts proposed by others that attempt to explain the Bible’s relevance separate from historical validity. Oswalt provides excellent arguments against the new age philosophies. Oswalt provides an articulate argument for the veracity of the Bible’s history and theology by providing several convincing points to affirm the Bibles varicity. Introduction John N. Oswalt, in his book The Bible Among the Myths, provides the reader with a brief, yet comprehensive view of the differences and similarities between the Old Testament and Ancient Near East religions. In the introduction, he provides a brief overview of scholarly thought regarding the Old Testament literature and Ancient Near East literature and how perspectives have changed in nearly 50 years. Oswalt states at the time he was introduced to the subject, scholars believed the Old Testament and its theology stood alone from other Ancient Near East religions. He now contends that present day scholars believe the Old Testament is just one of many Ancient Near East religions. Oswalt states it was the differences between the Old Testament and other Ancient Near that separated the two. But today, scholars are taking the same data and looking their similarities (11-13). He states that this is a â€Å"vital philosophical distinction between â€Å"essence† and â€Å"accident.†Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Essence† has to do with the essence of the subject whereas â€Å"accident† is those things that are not essential to the subject (13). He insinuates that scholars of today are centering their attention on the â€Å"accidental† attributes of the Old Testament and Ancient Near East religions and not centering on those things that are the essence of the subject; those things that make the religions different. It is these similarities and differences Oswalt states he will center his attention (14). Oswalt then turns the attention of the reader to the definition of a myth. He states there are different definitions of a myth but the Bible is not one of them. He states when people start to think of this word as â€Å"typical of a myth,† then four things happen: 1) The individual is devalued; 2) There becomes a disinterest in history; 3) People become open to the occult; and 4) People do not take responsibility for their actions (14). Oswalt believes what makes the difference between the Old Testament (OT) and the Ancient Near East (ANE) literature is how God makes himself divinely known to his people. The next premise Oswalt boldly states is that if we believe in Scripture theologically, then we can also believe that the Bible is historically true. He states, â€Å"the veracity of the theological claims of the OT is inseparable from the veracity of the historical claims† (16). The Bible maintains a â€Å"unique worldview† and is one that has been revealed by God to his people, Israel. He states there are things we must wrestle with when it comes to investigation the Bible historically from its theological stand but the Bible can uphold its claim to be theologically and historically viable. Chapter 1 Chapters one through five discuss the differences and similarities of the Bible compared to ANE literature. The premise of chapter one is the Bible has had a major impact on the world, especially with its contributions to Greek philosophy and thought. Greek philosophers believed there was one â€Å"unifying principle in the cosmos† (21) and that everything could be identified and reasoned with through logic. As Oswalt states, this brought into conflict the thought of a myth based polytheistic society to a monotheistic mindset. Oswalt states that the Hebrew thought survived through the exilic period in Assyria and Babylon even though they were in direct conflict with the societies in which they were captive. Israel brought into these societies the thought that there was only one God and He was the creator of the world and humanity. In addition, Oswalt states the Israelites brought the unique ideas that God was not dependent upon humanity but himself and that God revealed himself to humanity and gave them specific understandings of what he expected from his people. It was only by God’s design that the people of Israel were able to maintain their religion in a foreign land. Greek and Hebrew thoughts combined into a complementary way of thinking about the universe and the world. The Hebrew religion of one creator who created the world found a place in the Greek philosophy of a unifying principle to the universe. On the other hand, Greek philosophy could combine itself by to Hebrew ideas by linking the cause and effect of the world (26). Oswalt states that there was a necessity for the biblical worldview. Without it liking itself with the Greek philosophy, we would not have a need for reason, understand the importance of history and have value of the individual (27). Chapter 2 Oswalt, in chapter two, attempts to define the word myth but prior to his discourse, he revisits the divergence of scholars going from believing in the OT as a separate piece of literature from all other ANE mythological literature to being placed in the mix of ANE literature as mythology. Oswalt contends the job of defining a myth is challenging especially in a climate the Bible is being placed with other ANE literature. He states there are two definitional problems. The first problem has to do with the definitions of myth. He states there has been a breakdown in providing an accurate definition. The other problem has to do with the definition itself. It may not accurately describe the members of a class (32). Two primary definitions are provided for the reader. The first is the historical-philosophical definition which attempts to â€Å"describe how the myth operates in society† (40). Subdivisions of the historical-philosophical definition are the etymological, the sociological-theological and the literary. The second is the phenomenological. Etymological definition attempts to identify the false nature of an event or story. The sociological-theological definition is a form of story in which conveys some truth about the world. Literary definition of a myth is the narrative attempts to use the source of symbolism to convey truth or meaning (33-39). The phenomenological definition regarding a myth is to look at the common characteristics of the story and how it relates to the society. Oswalt states that all these definitions have a commonality of continuity. No matter their defined variations, they are interrelated. Oswalt states, â€Å"Continuity is a philosophical principle that asserts that all things are continuous with each other† (43). Myths are to have a common approach to the world (45). Chapter 3 The idea of continuity in myths is continued and expended in chapter three. Continuity can better be defined as all elements of a myth are interrelated physically and spiritually, in a circular motion, to each other. In a story, there are no distinctions between humanity, nature and the divine. This also includes the thought of pantheism, â€Å"the divine is everything and everything is divine† (49). The problem with this is that there are no absolutes, and people and nature are equal to god. Oswalt state, there are a number of â€Å"far-reaching implications† with regard to continuity. The first is that myths only look at the here and now, the present, and keeping things as status quo. Myths are not in interested in the future or moving forward. Second, myths do not look at the involvement of humanity and the choices they made. Third, myths also perpetuate the actualization of a â€Å"timeless reality.† Maintenance of the system is needed. This is accomplished through sexual relations in order to maintain fertility of the earth and living creatures as well as performing other ritualistic acts in order to ensure the gods and goddesses maintain the cycle of fertility. Fourth, nature is used as an important â€Å"expression of the divine.† The gods were personified in nature. Fifth, mythology used magic in order to accomplish something in nature or in the divine realm. Finally, because of this continuity, there are no boundaries which cause a blurring o f the natural, human and divine (44-56). Once both sides of continuity are explained, Oswald provides what he believes are common features of myths. There are always elements of polytheism. There are multiple gods. Gods are always represented by some natural element such as wood, stone or other natural element. The gods are not multidimensional and are stereotyped. The gods are not valued nor are humans. The gods are appeased by certain acts and humans are subject to the gods. There is always an element of conflict in the myth either with the gods or other human conflict. Eternity, both before and after the establishment of the world, was and is chaotic. Because humanity is at the whim of the gods, there is no standard of ethic. Finally, the cycle of life is cyclical. Oswalt states that the cycle goes from â€Å"nonexistence to dependence to independence to dependence to nonexistence† (57-61) Chapter 4 Biblical transcendence and the transcendence of God are the major themes of chapter four. While chapter three centered on the identifying factors of what constitutes a myth, Oswalt provides several key elements that make the Bible, especially the God of the Bible, unusual and exceptionally different from other ANE mythological literature and religions. As mentioned before, there is only one godly source of the OT (64). God who is spirit is separate from his creation and cannot be created in any form (65). Once created, the conflict ended with created order both in heaven and on earth (67). God created man in his image and therefore gave him importance by being in his likeness (69). Oswalt interesting notes that God is â€Å"supra-sexual.† Meaning, God is not known by his sexual identity but his roles. In addition, creation is not directed by sexual activity (73). God in all his activities can be relied upon to do all that he said he would do and not deviate as those gods of myths. God prohibited magic was as a method of manipulating Him into some type of action (75). The final element is in regard to the Sinai covenant God made with the people of Israel. They were obligated to live a certain lifestyle whereas there were no restrictions for the other who lived outside of the covenant (76). Comparing and contrasting the biblical worldview from those of a mythological perspective provides some understanding of how radically different and distinctive they are from each other. Transcendence verses continuity; God is above all and separate from the universe, nature and humanity. God interacts with humanity through his covenant relationship. Chapter 5 Oswalt continues his discussion between the differences between the Bible and mythology however he looks at it in light of their similarities. Before he does looks at those similarities, however, Oswalt digs deeper into the ethic as it relates to human relationships with God and man. He states that there are two offences, which are offenses against the gods and offences against other people (85). The mythic ethic, offences against the gods in literature were â€Å"cultic or magical† where offences against people were against society, (85-86). Oswalt points out offences against the gods had nothing to do with their treatment of each other. The biblical ethic was something different, more wholistic. Behavior on every level, social and personal was out of obedience in the covenantal relationship with God (88). God and his relationship with the covenantal people maintained the same standard. The author provides a few examples where it would seem as though the Bible is a similar to myth. He provides examples of the creation story in Genesis and in Psalms to point some similarities in the Enuma Elish (Babylonian creation account) and other literature. Oswalt acknowledges that similarities and disputes them as something the Bible took from mythos but that they were similar practices not intended to make the Bible like other biblical literature as much as identifying the differences that stood apart from other literature. Chapter 6 Chapter six marks the second half of the book as it discusses history and the Bible. Like before in the attempts of defining myth, Oswalt attempts to accurately define history. He defined history, in summary, as a narrative that records events which is recorded for â€Å"human self-knowledge† and used as a means of evaluation in order to capture important events. According to Oswalt, there are several factors that are dependent upon when understand history. The first thing is that people are â€Å"free and responsible.† The second item is that there are causes and effects in everything that happens. The recorded information must be true is the third element. The fourth key is history can be used as a learning tool for other to grow. Fifth thing is that what happened yesterday is just as relevant today and that there is significance in their â€Å"relationships.† Finally, there must be a standard in which the information is evaluated (113-115). There are several ways ancient people of the Near East recorded events of their lives. They are omen texts, king lists, date formulae, epics, royal annals, and chronicles. Omens were documents that contained something that predicted the good or bad of an event or circumstance. The kings’ lists contained the genealogy of the names and duration of the kings in power. Date formulae contained the yearly accomplishments of the kings. Epics were a narrative of events in a hero’s life which attempted to convey life’s philosophy. Royal annals were recorded events of a king and existed to â€Å"glorify the king† not so much to accurately chronicle what really happened. Chronicles were recordings of what actually happened, both positive and negative. They are about as accurate a historical record then the rest. In all, they were specific in the information they contained (116-122). Unlike our historians today or even the historical view of the Bible, the peoples of the ANE perspective was different than ours today. They were generally focused on the here and now and not future orientated. Their orientation included making sure they maintained the status quo in order to maintain the good in their lives. The best for everyone was to maintain the order of their society. They believed that everything was outside their control with a multiciplicity of causes determining their fate. This provides reasons why they were not interested in recording for the future and concerned about seeing the relationships of the events that took place in their lives. The Bible, on the other hand, provides a different perspective. As Oswalt states, â€Å"They [characteristics of the Bible] are clearly presented to us as unique individuals, firmly rooted in time and space† (125). The events which took place were recorded whether they were positive or negative. The events were recorded showing the interrelationships between the events and persons as well as showing the results of human choices and the impact those choices had on the lives of those people. The Bible connects all the pieces together in a way that transcends â€Å"the events themselves† by showing the divine interaction with humanity (127). Oswalt asks the question how then could the Israelite nation be different without myth. He indicates it is because there was only one God who kept â€Å"breaking into their experiencing and smashing their easy interpretations† (134). God kept involving himself in their lives and these events were recorded. Chapter 7 Chapter seven unpacks Oswalt’s position that the Bible is historically accurate and theologically sound. Oswalt debunks the idea that history must be recorded without divine involvement in order for it to be historically accurate. In fact, he indicates that is what differentiates the Bible from any other work (138-139). The author states that it is the unique working of God in the lives of people to reveal his divine purposes, which is nowhere else in any literature other than the Bible (142). It is what he calls â€Å"revelation through Human-Historical experience† (149). God revealed himself and was divinely involved in the lives of the Israelites. Oswalt notes that he Bible did not â€Å"bifurcate between revelation and witness to revelation† (140). The author goes on to state that if we fail to acknowledge God in the history then how can we accept the â€Å"acts† of God presented in the literature. There is also the question of how can God be known if we take him out of the equation. Although many maintain that one cannot have an accurate account of history with God. Owalt maintains that without God there cannot be an accurate history without God. Israel had a different and unique perspective of God in literature. Chapter 8 Chapter eight is an extension of chapter seven although Oswalt moves forward on his conviction that the Bible is both historically accurate and theologically relevant. He critically reviews two popular scholars’ works that have attempted to separate history from the Bible. The first is Rudolf Bultmann’s Existentialist Foundation and the other is Alfred North Whitehead’s Process Thought. The Existentialist Foundation is the way one sees self relevant to history. As Oswalt explains, â€Å"Instead of seeing the self as an entity shaped by history and a human â€Å"nature,† this way of thinking sees â€Å"existence as the most fundamental aspect of historic consciousness† (156). Oswalt states there are several problems with this philosophy; the first major issue is the use of the term â€Å"history.† He says that the term must be narrowed even further. He introduces the reader to the separation of the â€Å"narrative Geschichte from the event Historie. Geschichte is what is â€Å"going on and is in the domain of the theologian.† Meaning what is in the narrative of the story. Historie defines â€Å"what happened and is in the domain of the historian† (157). Historie centers upon what is the event that is actually happening in the story. Oswalt identifies several flaws with the Existentialist philosophy but the major ones are, 1) God is removed from the process; and, 2) The historical narrative excludes the past there is no acceptance of any standard of evaluation or appreciation of past events. Process Thought is seeks to take the events of the Bible and create together the events that take place into a new event. The events are integrated of the past, present and future. It is interested in the event not so much the substance. This too has its faults, one being that it also removes the transcendence of God in the narrative (167). Chapter 9 Oswalt provides alternative views concerning the biblical worldview in chapter nine. He maintains his stand that the biblical narrative has not changed but thoughts about it have and the biblical narrative is different than other mythological narratives. The author provides four alternatives concerning the biblical narrative. The first alternative is from John Van Seters. Seters stand is that several documents were pieced together and then priests rewrote what we now have today. The document was a work by someone using works similar to Thucydides and Herodotus. The second alternative is from Frank Cross. Cross work asserts that the bible came out of rewriting a poetic epic. The third alternative is from William Dever. Dever does deny archeological evidence of biblical history nor does he believe in the bible’s â€Å"religious explanation of Israel’s existence and nature† (178). Dever stand is Israel’s religion was no different than that of the Canaanite religion until after the exile and the religion has been inaccurately perceived. The fourth alternative is from Mark Smith. Smith suggests that Israel’s religion originated from the polytheistic religion of the Canaanites (181). Oswalt argues that not one of these alternative thoughts of the biblical narrative has proved the unique nature of the Bible. Chapter 10 Chapter 10 concludes the book by summarizing Oswalt’s main points he expressed throughout the book. The bible is both historically accurate and theologically sound. The Bible is unique and separate from myth literature but their similarities should not stand in the way of perceiving it as different. What makes it markedly different is that a transcendent God come to involve him into the lives of humanity is radically different means than that of the other cultures which overrode the continuity of myths.

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Physics (Electron Physics and X-ray Tomography) Coursework - 1

Physics (Electron Physics and X-ray Tomography) - Coursework Example gher than that of the photon attraction for the jump to take place from K-shell to the L-shell, loosely bound electrons from L moves into the K-shell to replace the ejected electron. When a lot of high incident energy are directed to an atom, many electrons are emitted and forms the x-rays. Bremsstrahlung is the process of slowing down primary radiatin; X-ray is produced by radiations when electrons are retarded or decelerated2.. The radiation becomes intense and attains higher frequencies with increase in energy of bombarding electrons. The colliding electrons shifts electrons from high-energy shell to low energy shells, the rapid replacement by electrons from outer shells create a clearly defined x-ray. The curve shown below was produced by analysing the nature of radiation produced by bombarding electrons from four distinct energy levels against a tungsten target. The graph is used to relate the intensity of x-rays emitted and the wavelength for accurate x-ray photographing. The figure above shows X-ray spectrograph when copper is used as the target material, the intensity of the photon have linear relation with the wavelength. The intensity rises to peak then starts to slope downwards; high accelerating voltage causes the peak to rise sharply, as shown by Kp, KÃŽ ±, LP and LÃŽ ±. X-ray tube functions as energy converting system that converts electric energy into x-ray radiation and heat. Heat3 is the undesired product of the process; the conversion takes place in x-ray tube. The components of x-ray tube includes The higher the amount of current the higher the intensity of x-rays emitted since more of electrons are displaced from the high energy levels. In the case above, 5mA produces much lower intensity of X-rays as compared to 100mA since the rate of electron displacement is high in the first case characterized by the high peak of 100mA current4. b) Attenuation by photoelectric effect result from interaction between Photons and Matter. Photons are

The Royal Tenenbaums -movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Royal Tenenbaums -movie - Essay Example was my friends’ reviews that had made me dislike the movie, but then I figured out that the reason was the lack of adventure and eccentricity in the film which was something that I had expected from Wes Anderson. I had Rushmore, amongst others, as a trademark for Anderson’s movies and this one was just not as thrilling as its predecessors. As things turned out, I was forced to watch this movie again after a few months- this time with my family, and I must say it was a totally different experience. The movie showcases one of the best in the art genre with perfection abound in everything ranging from dialogue delivery to the sets and the overall theme. The story offers a unique blend of comedy and drama and revolves around a dysfunctional patriarch, Royal who is forced into unfortunate consequences despite the success of his children. The story takes a turn when, in an attempt to re-win the love of his former wife, Royal fakes up an illness and makes a comeback into his wife’s and children’s’ lives. The plot marks the death of Royal and life moves on the in the Tenenbaums family. As I watched the movie, I could not have imagined anyone else in Hackman’s place play Royal’s character. The struggle shown between his ill intentions and good doing is remarkable and effortless. As common sense would suggest, situations cannot be mended and troubles averted once a lot of time has elapsed. Anderson defies this logic in the movie by demonstrating how it’s never late to set things right. Love must be appreciated even if it comes from an ill-hearted character such as Royal’s because life is too short for

Coffee Shop Retailing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Coffee Shop Retailing - Essay Example The Starbuck coffee still leads its competitor, Costa in the market share. A survey conducted on the market performance of the two brands showed that Starbucks commanded a market share of 27% compared to Costa which commands 15 % of the market while the rest of the market is being shared between the small companies. In rating the market of the coffee with the substitute beverages, coffee in general comes third behind tea and Juice. 70% of the adults in UK takes coffee, 81% take juice while 83 % of the adult population takes tea (Kolk 2012). 2011 is a year where coffee experienced more innovations in its brands. The culture of taking coffee has been entrenched among the UK consumers and it is considered as the luxury which is affordable to all users. The quality of the product has been greatly improved by innovation through product development. The leading manufacturer of coffee is Nestle UK. The company’s product enjoys a market share of 42%. Basically the presence of instant coffee is the major reason behind success of the Nestle Company in the manufacturing sector. The coffee pods also have contributed to the growth of coffee consumption in general (Kolk 2012). Findings A coffee shop serves not only coffee but also tea, light lunch and some deserts. A local coffee shop can attract a large market by ensuring the frequent customers remains loyal. Commitment is required in order to accomplish a successful marketing. Usually most of the marketing and is done through the interaction with customers. Existing customers invite new customers; coffee shops provide a good social experience among the customers thus it is ideal for interaction. Some common coffee brands in the UK markets includes, Maxwell House coffee, Nescafe, Lavazza, Starbucks, Melitta, Kenco coffee among others. The market of these brands has depended mainly on the marketing of the brand. Retailers benefit from brands which have already established in the market. The main coffee brands in the U K market are Starbucks and the Costa brand. The famously world brand (Starbucks) carries the larger coffee market as compared to the Costa brand. The brand has several outlets throughout the country (Kolk 2012). A part from the coffee business, the coffee offers food together with the coffee, in order to increase income and also increase convenience to the customers. Though selling of food stuffs have been expanding among the coffee shop, the challenge is competitions from the established bakers and other competitors in selling the foodstuffs. Research shows that selling of foodstuffs within the coffee shops has been on the increase in the UK market and therefore the trend in coffee shop development has changed the marketing strategies shops rendering the services Quality of services A successful marketing would start with the kind of products and services being offered. Development of a variety of services would beneficial to the coffee shops than sticking to just offering coffee. Variety of services that are customer friendly benefits in expansion since advertisements is more efficient when done orally. Some the benefits that would ensure more customer base is ensuring the customers comfort. Ensuring that every table has a supply of electricity enables the customers to have a comfortable cup of coffee while using the laptops. Other services which are essential in increasing the customers include introducing live entertainment and uniqueness in provision of services.

Criminal Justic Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Criminal Justic - Research Paper Example It was established in the eighties. Born in a poor family, Escobar got involved in drug business. By the time he was 22, he had become a millionaire. In 1989, he was the seventh richest person in the world. He became so influential that he could offer bounties for killing of an ambassador of the United States. He was one of the big three of the Medellin Cartel. His death was a significant step on the way of the United State’s efforts war on drugs. This essay will examine the rise and fall of Columbian Drug King Pin Pablo Escobar. The United States had to combat the growing threats of violence, corruption and murder used by the Medellin drug cartel to traffic cocaine into United State’s borders, and it declared an all out war on terror. The massive import of cocaine, subsequent effect on the price of cocaine leading to increasing cases of drug abuse necessitated the United States to act directly and take part in the efforts of the Colombian Police’s hunt for Escobar. Ultimately the United States were instrumental in imparting enough skills and training to the Colombian police to track down and bring down Escobar, the ruthless drug lord and murderer who had practically ruled Colombo for larger part of almost a decade. The experience of dealing with the Medellin cartel and the method used to hunt down Escobar also helped the United States to establish a system to deal with foreign drug cartels. It is thus important to study the way that the United States dealt with the menace of the Medellin drug cartel. The Medellin cartel was established in the early eighties by the drug lord, former car thief Carlos Lehder. Because of its geographical location favorable both for import of raw material from Peru and Bolivia and export by smuggling in to the United States, Colombia was a major country where cocaine was produced. Earliest references to the Medellin drug cartel date back to 1977, when the expression was first used in

Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 14

Business - Essay Example The two prospective business partners, Pat and Alex, are professionals in different fields. This is an advantage in that it will save their business a lot of money and will go further in ensuring that their business becomes a success. Alex has a lot of experience in roasting coffee, which they can choose to do in their coffee shop instead of buying coffee that is already roasted. Buying roasted coffee is expensive. Being a chef, he can also handle all matters related to the kitchen Alex has all the experience that the business requires in order to provide customers with fine cups of coffee. He could save the business unnecessary expense, and that money could be used for other purposes in the business (Longeneckeet & Gaele, 2006). Pat is a marketing manager in an advertising firm. Pat can overwhelmingly provide the necessary management skills that are required in the coffee shop. This is also an advantage to the business, as management skills are essential in daily operations of a business enterprise. Since the coffee shop will be a new business in town, the two partners will need to carry out some advertisements. The advertisements will be aimed at attracting customers in their business. Pat, a well-trained manager, has to embark on this department and advice on the best way of attracting customers in this coffee shop (Longeneckeet & Gaele,

Critical Reflection of Writing the Research Action Essay on Why High

Critical Reflection of Writing the Research Action on Why High School Athletics Are Important - Essay Example In my essay, I addressed; how hard it is to be as well as to become a student-athlete, and the importance of the student element of being a student-athlete is. In addition, I reviewed the criticism from teachers, parents, and other students towards athletes is a problem that is overlooked, also being part of a team is the best way for a student to meet friends in a disciplined, healthy environment. I wanted to emphasize my topic towards teachers and parents that are against athletics in schools. In my essay, I wanted to prove athletics is beneficial in school, because of how important grades are when trying to become a college athlete as well as competing in games or tournaments. For example, coaches make their players miss games if they have not met the minimum grade requirements set by the institution until the grade is brought up to expectation. In addition, once a student becomes a part of a team, they make everlasting friendships with teammates. Even more influential athletics is a great way for students to stay healthy and be around a safe, positive and constructive atmosphere. When establishing my audience, I wanted to appoint the value of discipline, along with extending on how sports do help with students’ educational and social needs. As I was writing the essay, I was guided by the stasis theory of conjecture, definition, quality, and policy. The theory assisted me in identifying the real concern of teachers and parents against athletics and sports in schools. In the conjecture part, I identified the facts that support and oppose my stance on school sports. These facts formed the basis of my essay and finally guided me on the importance of sports in schools. The definition bit, using the stasis theory, helped me in defining the meaning and importance of sports in schools. This part strengthened my conviction about the contribution athletics and sports have on the life of a student.     

Different approaches to decision-making Assignment

Different approaches to decision-making - Assignment Example Tentatively, it is extremely difficult to use these sales to justify the existence of a common problem. In the same case, Home Depot and Lowe’s, in as far as the Big Box DIY store is concerned experience a relatively higher annual sales than Menard’s. On another case, when all the three categories of DIY stores are compared, there is a big difference in terms of sales, showing how the sales may be misleading especially where a major decision making is concerned. Possibly, a major individual store audit may be necessary in order to balance the decisions that are just yet to be made, with the possible causes of frustrations and poor performance in a number of the DIY stores. 3. The Company executives assumed a normative framework of decision making. One of the major operating principles of normative framework is to identify, which decision or judgment is most appropriate to make. It provides and evaluation standards, which the company executives used to determine that it is more appropriate actually, to sell the DIY stores that to merger the IT systems of all the stores. It requires an adequate observation with effective definitions of the stakes involved. The Company executives must have identified the situation irredeemable as high stakes were involved that could not be salvaged by any alternative apart from selling the stores. 4. There are several stakeholders who are responsible for decision making in a company. In all areas, top management is involved, but who count on the valuations and assessment of an area’s experts and technical professional. In this case, the Company’s IT expert and project developers (engineers) are the most integral component of decision making in the IT area. Their assessments, evaluations and conclusion form the backbone or the basis of decision making. They are the people who come out with why it would be better or disastrous to take certain decisions in as far as the Company’s IT system is concer ned. The Company’s executives and top managers must also be involved, and in fact they are the most essential players in the decision making framework. They will rely on the deductions of IT and project development engineers to make effective decisions with regard to changes and implementation. 5. Analytic cognitive style may be best suited for such kind of a situation. It requires that all different parts of a system that interact together to bring out a general impact must be examined and analyzed with regards to their i1ndividual contribution to the major problem at hand. There several parts of the DIY stores that are run by the same Company in France and the decision to sell all the stores stem from the fact that almost all of the stores are negatively affected in one way or the other. This puts into consideration the need to react and make decisions influenced from the individual analysis of all the stores in France. It is the responsibility of the executives to ensure t hat the decisions make take care of all the business establishments owned by the same company in a particular region. 6. An effective creative approach to analysis must put into consideration new and efficiently applicable concepts and ideas. The analysis process must disintegrate the available data and findings into finer details with a view of identifying the problems and coming up with impressive solutions that innovatively improve the current situations. It entails an effective

Public Administration and Management Essay Example for Free

Public Administration and Management Essay Introduction Public administration in Britain takes place through a variety of state agencies with varying histories, functions, as well as patterns of political control and accountability. These comprise the civil service; a large number of local bureaucracies serving an elective system of local government; another massive organization administering the National Health Service (NHS) and, under the acronym quango, a diverse range of organizations responsible for a assortment of administrative, consultative, advisory in addition to regulatory roles. In addition there is a compound of tribunals, inquiries, an ombudsman system and the judiciary, which together dispense administrative justice. The architecture of the modern state was drawn mainly in the nineteenth century, when the rising industrial bourgeoisie required a means of supporting the emerging capitalist economy. A number of major reports and Acts of Parliament offered blueprints for a competent and meritocratic modern civil service and the system of carefully managed municipalities. Reconstruction following the Second World War added a new layer to the modern state with the making of a inclusive welfare state, including the NHS, and the nationalization of a number of chief industries in the form of public corporations. From the 1980s an additional chapter was opened, as the post-war Keynesian beliefs were challenged in the rise of neo-liberalism under the government of Margaret Thatcher. The bureaucratic terrain was re-landscaped, part of a procedure distinguished as a hollowing out of the state (Rhodes 1994; 1997). Even though talk of reform had long featured on the political program, the public bureaucracies had established a renowned capacity to resist change. However, this time the thoughts were backed by resolute political will. A significant intellectual dynamic came from interpretation based on rational individuality under the name of public choice theory (Niskanen 1973). This was usually suspicious of public bureaucracies, which were seen as principally self serving. Much of the practical reform in structure and management was stirred by the model of the private sector, where it was reasoned that the restraint of the profit motive secured greater efficiency, effectiveness as well as economy. The oratory spoke of reinventing government (Osborne and Gaebler 1992); though to critics it emerged as abandoning government in an anti-statist crusade. A program of privatization cut sheathe through the state industrial sector while giving rise to a new generation of regulatory agencies. Much of the civil service was recast into a compound of agencies with a greater level of autonomy from the centre, and the collection of quangos began to grow as responsibilities for a variety of functions were transferred from the realm of elected local government. Indeed, processes of market testing as well as compulsory competitive tendering saw the stipulation of certain services passing from the state altogether and into the hands of the private sector. The arrival of a Labour Government in 1997 did little to stem the tide of change. Furthermore, this new government occasioned further seismic shifts through devolution to Scotland and Wales. Great Britain includes the nations of England, Wales and Scotland, while the United Kingdom extends the embrace to Northern Ireland. These cultural forms were recognized in an outline of administrative regionalism. For long this motivated little political feeling; only in Northern Ireland were separatist tensions felt. Nonetheless, during the 1980s, nationalist movements gathered speed in both Wales and Scotland; this sequentially generated some pressure towards English regionalism. Thus the state has been forced to concern itself with issues of territorial management and make some chief allowances to diversity (Thompson, 1997). Rooted in a history dating from the take-over of Ireland by the Tudors and re-conquest first by Cromwell and later by the Protestant William of Orange, Northern Ireland dwarfs all other territorial problems of UK Government. Coming to office in the year 1997, Tony Blairs first official journey was to Ulster and Sinn Fein was invited into new peace talks. After indirect negotiations, which included some mediation from US President Bill Clinton, an agreement was reached which included: A Northern Ireland assembly of 108 elected by PR with legislative powers under an all-party executive A North-South Ministerial Council to reflect on issues for instance cross-border co-operation The Irish Government to give up constitutional claims to Northern Ireland and Westminster to reinstate the Government of Ireland Act A Council of the Isles comprising members from the north and south of Ireland and the Scottish and Welsh assemblies There were also to be releases of prisoners in addition to a decommissioning of arms. The agreement was effectively put to referendums in Northern Ireland and the Republic in May 1998. Elections were held, but advancement began to slow down. Scotland and Wales In the UK mainland, Wales and Scotland had been governed as provinces from London, with Secretaries of State in the Cabinet and Grand Committees in Parliament. Public administration in the provinces came under Whitehall outposts, the Welsh and Scottish Offices. Nonetheless, from 1979 an extremely centralizing government heightened a mood of separatism, placing strains on the veracity of the state which were to go off in tectonic constitutional shifts in 1998. The configuration of the two new assemblies was intended to release a safety valve on the separatist pressure. On the other hand, opinion polls began to show rising support for the SNP and its objective of complete Scottish independence in the background of the EU. Comparable murmurings were heard in Wales, a country that had done very fine from its European involvement (Jones 1997). Labor’s central machine showed an enthusiastic concern to have its chosen men as the leaders of the provincial parties (and hence first ministers in the assemblies) representing a keen aspiration to keep the provinces under the Westminster wing. Nonetheless, when the elections by the additional member system (dHondt version) to the new assemblies were held on 6 May 1999, the Labour Party, with 28 of the 60 seats in the Welsh Senedd, and 59 of Scotlands 129-seat assembly, failed to win unconditional majorities in either province. A future of alliance government loomed. furthermore, with 17 seats in Wales and 35 in Scotland, the nationalists were second placed in both cases, possibly presaging further separatist pressure (Drewry, Butcher, 1991). England Devolution debate reverberated into England with requirements for regional independence. A political split was opening as from the early 1980s voting patterns gradually more revealed the Conservatives as a party of the southeast. past the ballot box an economic split yawned as huge deindustrialization and the collapse of mining confounded communities in the north. The economic forecasting organization, the Henley Centre, found per capita income in the south-east to be 20 per cent higher than in the rest of Britain (Wagstyl 1996). A European Commission report of November 1996 established that, while post-war economic revival had closed the poverty gaps between Western Europes states, wide dissimilarities remained between regions, the greatest being within the UK.   The British public sector, with numerous of its customs cast in the nineteenth century, has for long been criticized as managerially incompetent. The post-war era saw repeated efforts at reform all through the public sector, though few made any lasting notion before the 1980s. Ever since this time there has been something of a revolution as what was phrased a new public management movement became a familiar international influence (Hood 1991; Lowndes 1997). It was to send shivers to the very foundations of the state, reforming structures as well as practices. The nineteenth-century reforms recognized a custom of elitist generalism and social superiority in which Oxbridge graduates schooled in the classics were to lead the upper reaches of the state bureaucracy. This was to stimulate substantial post-war debate. The onset in office of a Labour Government in 1964 pledged revolution and the 1968 Fulton Committee set up by Harold Wilson criticized the cult of the amateur. It resulted in the formation of a Civil Service Department (CSD) in Whitehall to supervise managerial reforms all through the service, and the establishment of a Civil Service College to offer continuing operating training. One proposal which failed to stimulate was that entrants should hold relevant degrees: the place of the generalist administrator remained unassailed. In the 1990s, Richards (1996) initiated the generalists promotion prospects still significantly brighter than those of the specialist. In the interim, the Civil Service College had fallen well short of the determined position envisaged for it and the CSD had been ignominiously wipe out from the bureaucratic map. Not until Thatcher took the bit between her teeth did a grave breakthrough come. In her first year of office an Efficiency Unit was set up headed by Sir Derek Rayner of the retail giant Marks Spencer. He initiated a system of scrutinies in which competence teams studied recognized practices and suggested reforms, an initiative which achieved more than anything before (Hennessy 1990:619). Even so, the reforms did not go far enough for those of a fundamental bent. An even greater culture shock was to come when Robin Ibbs took over the Efficiency Unit and produced the 1988 report, Improving Management in Government: The Next Steps. This was the report which led to the recasting of the Civil Service as executive agencies. Despite its structural impact the intent in this initiative was essentially managerial (Elcock 1991:236-42). Once established, the new chief executives were given a free rein to introduce a wide range of management practices such as performance-related pay and short-term contracts in the quest for efficiency. A special unit was created in the Cabinet Office to maintain the reforming impetus. The government also assisted developments by abolishing the Northcote-Trevelyan model of centralized recruitment through the independent Civil Service Commission for some 95 per cent of appointments. Responsibility was to lie with the various departments and agencies themselves. A Recruitment and Assessment Service was created to offer central assistance if required although, amidst heated controversy, this itself was privatized in 1991. The result was a variety of terms and conditions of employment throughout the service. There were limits to the revolution. Government radicals had wanted the reforms to reach the senior mandarins, subjecting them to short-term contracts, market-testing and large-scale appointments from the private sector on the revolving-door principle. For most civil servants, anticipating a life insulated from the chill winds of the market economy, much of the managerial reform process was demoralizing. While academics in the right-wing think tanks applauded the changes, many other academic critics saw in the quest for efficiency serious threats to the fundamental public service ethos (Elcock 1991:188; Chapman and OToole 1995). There was some feeling that the reforms reflected governmental antagonism towards civil servants as much as a quest for improved management; the term deprivileging was sometimes heard. The Treasury and Civil Service Select Committee noted that in 1992/3,  £768 million worth of activities out of the  £1.119 billion subjected to market testing were contracted out without civil servants even being allowed to make in-house bids. The traditional management structure in local government entailed separate departments responsible for the provision of various services, each headed by a chief officer and responsible to a particular council committee. A legion of post-war critics saw this as slow, cumbersome and diffuse. A major debate in the 1960s concerned a corporate management model in which a powerful chief executive would displace the traditional town clerk to give strong leadership at the centre. Councilors, faced with a palpable loss of power, proved resistant and traditional practices persisted, although often under the camouflage of some changed nomenclature. New impetus came with the Thatcher regime and was elaborated under John Major (Kingdom 1999). Looking as always to the private sector, much was made of the concept of the enabling authority; the emphasis was not on the direct provision services but on contracting them out to the private and voluntary sectors. Such a practice was by no means new but, from the late 1980s, it became central to government policy, with compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) introduced for an ever-widening range of functions, from refuse collection to professional, legal and accounting responsibilities. A policy of care in the community, coming into force in April 1993, added impetus by requiring local authorities to make use of private and voluntary-sector residential homes for their widening community care responsibilities. In opposition Labour had poured scorn on the policy; in government it maintained the contracting out principle under the term Best Value. The managerial implications in CCT were profound. Although local responses varied with political complexion, few authorities could remain untouched by the culture shift. Even where there was no stomach for contracting out, teams of officials had to endure considerable stress in producing competitive in-house bids in order to keep their jobs. Colleagues found themselves in competitive relationships with each other, some becoming contractors and others providers (Audit Commission 1993). Moreover, the drawing up and monitoring of contracts required the skills of lawyers and accountants rather than elected councilors. Majors Environment Secretary Michael Heseltine produced a consultation document, The Internal Management of Local Authorities, stressing that the control and co-ordination of large workforces would no longer be the central management task. The paper looked for speedy decision-making and strong leadership, advocating local cabinets, appointed council managers or, most radically, directly elected US-style mayors with high public profiles. The latter had held little appeal to Heseltines party but, in a February 1998 consultation paper, Modernizing Local Government: Local Democracy and Community Leadership, the new Labour Government declared itself very attracted to the model of a strong directly elected mayor (para 5.14). The promised Greater London Authority was seen as a suitable flagship for innovation. Here the mayor, served by three or four deputies and a small bureaucracy of around 250, would set policy objectives and an annual budget (of some  £3.3 billion). The role of the councilors in the assembly would be approving rather than determining the budget. Responsibilities of the new mayor would include public transport, the fire brigade, strategic planning, trunk roads, traffic management, the ambulance service and possibly the arts. In addition, responsibility for the Metropolitan Police Force would be taken over from the Home Secretary. The potential power of the new office would be considerable, and both main parties showed alarm as the names of some of their more maverick members were canvassed. For Labour leader Tony Blair, the nightmare candidate appeared to be the left-wing Ken Livingstone, ex-leader of the old GLC and extremely popular with Londoners. The nightmare became reality in May 2000. There was an expectation that this model would be extended to other major cities. All 494 councils were asked to submit plans to central government showing how they would separate the decision-making role from that of representing constituents. Three options were offered: †¢ a leader elected by the council who would appoint a cabinet from the council A directly elected executive mayor who would appoint a cabinet from the council A directly elected mayor working with a full-time manager appointed by the council Conclusion The general election of May 1997 saw the end of an 18-year period of Conservative rule during which the administrative landscape of the state had been radically recast. Few corners of the public sector could be said to have escaped some aspect of the winds of change which included privatization, agencification, CCT, market-testing, public-private partnership ventures, the emergence by stealth of the new magistracy and the general spread of a private-sector managerial ethos. In opposition, the Labour Party had maintained a prolonged crusade against most of the reforms, and many supporters had looked forward to the advance of the political bulldozers to level the ground. In power the party kicked off with a number of significant constitutional moves over devolution, the electoral system, the ECHR, the House of Lords, the Bank of England and the reform of local government. However, the party in power termed itself New Labour and preservation orders appeared over the recently privatized sector; indeed further privatizations were soon mooted in the cases of the Royal Mint and Air Traffic Control, and the remodeled Civil Service and NHS. In local government grant-maintained schools remained under the term foundation schools, and the replacement of CCT with Best Value was, in the eyes of critics, little more than cosmetic (Theakston, Fry, 1998). Moreover, there remained something very much like a capping regime over local government expenditure. In managerial terms, the three Es of effectiveness, economy and efficiency continued as the holy trinity. As the millennium closed it was safe to say that, while the British public sector would remain in the state of flux allowed by its vague and unwritten constitution, the substructure had seen some tectonic shifts from which there would be little reversal.   Reference: Audit Commission (1993) Realising the Benefits of Competition: The Client Role forContracted Services, London: HMSO. Birkinshaw, P. (1997) Freedom of information, Parliamentary Affairs, 50, 1:164-81. Chapman, R.A. and Toole, B.J. (1995) The role of the civil service: a traditional view in a period of change, Public Policy and Administration, 10, 2:3-20. Elcock, H. (1991) Change and Decay: Public Administration in the 1990s, Harlow: Longman. Hennessy, P. (1990) Whitehall, London: Fontana.   Hood, C. (1991) A public management for all seasons, Public Administration, 69, 1: 3-19. Jones, B. (1997) Wales: a developing political economy, in M. Keating and J. Loughlin (eds), The Political Economy of Regionalism, London: Frank Cass. Kingdom, J. (1999) Centralisation and fragmentation: John Major and the reform of Local Government, in P. Dorey (ed.), The Major Premiership, Basingstoke: Macmillan, pp 45-7. Klug, F., Starmer, K. and Weir, S. (1996) Civil liberties and the parliamentary watchdog: the passage of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, Parliamentary Affairs, 49, 4:536-49.   Lowndes, V. (1997) Change in public service management: new institutions and new managerial regimes, Local Government Studies, 23, 2:42-66.   Mandelson, P. and Liddle, R. (1996) The Blair Phenomenon: Can New Labour Deliver? London: Faber.    Nicholson, E. (1996) Secret Society, London: Indigo. Osborne, D. and Gaebler, T. (1992) Reinventing Government, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Rhodes, R.A.W. (1994) The hollowing out of the state: the changing nature of the public service in Britain, Political Quarterly, 65:138-51. Rhodes, R.A.W. (1997) Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance,Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press.   Richards, D. (1996) Recruitment to the highest grades in the civil service-drawing the curtains Open, Public Administration, 74, 4:657-77. Wagstyl, S. (1996) Nice work if you can get it, The. Financial Times, 18 December, 23. Theakston, K. and Fry, G.K. (1998) Britains administrative elite: permanent secretaries 1900-1986, Public Administration, 67, 2:129-48.   Ã‚   Thompson, B. (1997) Conclusion: judges as trouble-shooters, Parliamentary Affairs, 50, 1:182-9.   Drewry, G. and Butcher, T. (1991) The Civil Service Today (2nd edn), Oxford: Blackwell.

The Causes And Effects Of Child Abuse

The Causes And Effects Of Child Abuse In a civilized society one would expect the occurrence of child abuse to be nearly non-existent, however the statistics do not support this belief. This paper defined what child abuse is .It also revised the short term and long-term effects of this abuse and the resulting mental, physical and societal issues that arise from early abuse and continue on throughout their childhood. It will bring up the statistical information showing the continued abuse against a child. It is hoped that this research enlighten readers on pertinent facts and information on the causes and effects of this cruel act. The term child abuse covers a wide range of behavior, from actual physical assault to simple neglect of a childs basic needs. Child abuse is also sometimes called child maltreatment. Infants and preschool children are most likely to suffer deliberately inflicted fractures, burns, and bruises. This is known as the battered-child syndrome. Although the extent of child abuse is difficult to measure, it is recognized as a major social problem, especially in industrialized nations. It occurs in all income, racial, religious, and ethnic groups and in urban and rural communities. Studies have shown that most parents who abuse their children were once abused as a child (Funk Wagnalls, 2006). Eight percent of all children abused are emotionally maltreated. Sixteen percent are sexually abused. Twenty-seven percent are physically abused. Fifty-five percent of all children abused are neglected (Child Abuse, 1994).Any type of Child Abuse, carried out for a long period of time, may cause long-term mental damage. Although there are many formal and acceptable definitions of child abuse, the following is offered as a guide for information on child abuse and neglect. Child abuse is the act or series of acts that is described in commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver and results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to child. Most child abuse happens in childs home, with a smaller amount occurring in the organizations, schools or communities they interact with. Abuse of a child is anything that causes inj ury or puts the child in danger of physical injury. Child abuse can be physical, sexual, or emotional. Neglect happens when a parent or responsible caretaker fails to provide adequate supervision, food, clothing, shelter or other basics for a child. Child abuse is any action or lack of which endangers or impairs a childs physical, mental or emotional health and development. As it will be shown in the following presentation .There are many causes of child abuse as well as effects. The most prominent one among the causes is mental illness, as well as psychological problems. The tendency is that people who are not in their right minds, could easily do harm to children, whether intentional or not. Effect of child abuse can be manifested in poor social skills, depression, difficulty in building up relationships in people, low self image, eating disorders, as well as physical disabilities. Child abuse could also lower the self worth of the child who experienced it. Regardless of the type of abuse, if not stopped and having the resultant social and psychological issues dealt with as quickly as possible may result in the vicious cycle of abuse where the abused goes out on their own and then becomes the abuser. Despite all good intentions this cycle of violence can and does occur because it is the only way that an untreated abused individual knows how to deal with stressors in a relationship. In 2007, the United States reported, among all 50 states, 753,357 cases of child mistreatment which is a ratio of 1 out of every 100 children have been reported as being abused in some fashion throughout the year. This abuse ranged from 59% being neglected, 11% being physically abused, and 7.5% sexually abused 4.2% having emotional abuse, and less than 1% being medically mistreated. Of these cases, the abuse was near evenly split between boys and girls, and 79% of the abuse occurred in those under the age of 11, with the most prominent being under the age of 4 (Child Maltreatment, 2007). Statistics are more readily reported within the United States than they are elsewhere throughout the world. However, available data from (World Health Organization [WHO], 2001) shows a global epidemic which is evidenced by: Almost 53,000 children died worldwide in 2002 as a result of homicide Up to 80 to 98% of children suffer physical punishment in their homes, with a third or more experiencing severe physical punishment resulting from the use of implements. 150 million girls and 73 million boys under 18 experienced forced sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual violence during 2002. Between 100 and 140 million girls and women in the world have undergone some form of female genital mutilation/cutting. In sub-Saharan Africa, Egypt and the Sudan, 3 million girls and women are subjected to genital mutilation/cutting every year. Worldwide, approximately 40 million children are subjected to child abuse each year UNICEF estimates that two million children died as a result of armed conflict during a recent 10-year period and that another six million were injured or disabled (Human Right Watch, 2001). Each year, approximately one million more children around the world are introduced into commercial sexual exploitation (Casa Alianza, 2001). Sexual abuse statistics vary between countries and reports, but are consistently alarming: One countrys research indicates that up to 36% of girls and 29% of boys have suffered child sexual abuse; another study reveals up to 46% of girls and 20% of boys have experienced sexual coercion (The 57th session of the UN Commission on Human Rights). We have explored the statistical occurrence of child abuse; next will be the causes that drive one to actually abuse a child. Though all of the causes of child abuse are not known, a significant amount of research points to several factors that put children at risk for abuse. There are many reasons why some people have difficulty meeting the demands of parenthood, including: Immaturity and unrealistic expectations Unmet emotional needs The stresses of child care Economic crisis Domestic violence Lack of parenting knowledge Difficulty in relationships Depression or other mental health problems Drug or alcohol problems Family history of abuse In most case that involve child abuse, the most common reoccurring factors are having a family history of abuse, mental health problems which inhibit proper abilities to cope with different situations and majority of the case involve some type of drug or alcohol use or abuse prior to the incident. In a more disturbing trend, that of child on child abuse, which is defined as a child at least 2 years of age older than the victim has been linked to after effects of a child being abused. This is to say that the abuser is abusing another child because that is what happened to them so they think it is okay or normal since they are mimicking the actions of their abusers. This last point shows why for the most part child abuse and other forms of violence is learned behavior. In new studies they are attempting to show the link in mental development being slowed in those that receive abuse at an early age, compared to those that did not receive abuse. one recent study on a group of monkeys showed that those babies that received mild abuse as an infant grew to later have deficiency of serotonin, the chemical known as the pleasure center of the brain, and as adults, those levels would rise to normal when they would abuse others. With these actions, being learned or brought about due to family, mental, emotional or addiction disorders the course of action is through prevention. The term prevention is typically used to represent activities that stop an action or behavior. It can also be used to represent activities that promote a positive action or behavior. Research has found that successful child abuse interventions must both reduce risk factors and promote protective factors to ensure the well-being of children and families. Protective factors are conditions in families and communities that, when present, increase the health and well-being of children and families. They are attributes that serve as buffers, helping parents who might otherwise be at risk of abusing their children to find resources, supports, or coping strategies that allow them to parent effectively, even under stress. The impact of child maltreatment can be profound. Research shows that child maltreatment is associated with adverse health a nd mental health outcomes in children and families, and those negative effects can last a lifetime. In addition to the impact on the child, child abuse and neglect affect various systems including physical and mental health, law enforcement, judicial and public social services, and nonprofit agencies as they respond to the incident and support the victims. One analysis of the immediate and long-term economic impact of child abuse and neglect suggests that child maltreatment costs the nation as much as $258 million each day, or approximately $94 billion each year (Child Welfare Information Gateway, n.d). Protective factors are conditions in families and communities that, when present, increase the health and well-being of children and families. These attributes serve as buffers, helping parents to find resources, supports, or coping strategies that allow them to parent effectively, even under stress. Research has shown that the following protective factors are linked to a lower incidence of child abuse and neglect. Nurturing and attachment A childs early experience of being nurtured and developing a bond with a caring adult affects all aspects of behavior and development. When parents and children have strong, warm feelings for one another, children develop trust that their parents will provide what they need to thrive, including love, acceptance, positive guidance, and protection. Research shows that babies who receive affection and nurturing from their parents have the best chance of healthy development. A childs relationship with a consistent, caring adult in the early years is associated later in life with better academic grades, healthier behaviors, more positive peer interactions, and an increased ability to cope with stress. Knowledge of parenting and of child and youth development There is extensive research linking healthy child development to effective parenting. Children thrive when parents provide not only affection, but also respectful communication and listening, consistent rules and expectations, and safe opportunities that promote independence. Successful parenting fosters psychological adjustment, helps children succeed in school, encourages curiosity about the world, and motivates children to achieve. Parental resilience Parents, who can cope with the stresses of everyday life, as well an occasional crisis, have resilience; they have the flexibility and inner strength necessary to bounce back when things are not going well. Multiple life stressors, such as a family history of abuse or neglect, health problems, marital conflict, or domestic or community violence-and financial stressors such as unemployment, poverty, and homelessness-may reduce a parents capacity to cope effectively with the typical day-to-day stresses of raising children. Social connections Parents with a social network of emotionally supportive friends, family, and neighbors often find that it is easier to care for their children and themselves. Most parents need people they can call on once in a while when they need a sympathetic listener, advice, or concrete support. Research has shown that parents, who are isolated, with few social connections, are at higher risk for child abuse and neglect. Concrete supports for parents Many factors affect a familys ability to care for their children. Families who can meet their own basic needs for food, clothing, housing, and transportation-and who know how to access essential services such as childcare, health care, and mental health services to address family-specific needs-are better able to ensure the safety and well-being of their children. Partnering with parents to identify and access resources in the community may help prevent the stress that sometimes precipitates child maltreatment. Providing concrete supports may also help prevent the unintended neglect that sometimes occurs when parents are unable to provide for their children. All of these factors along with many others can help decrease the occurrence of child abuse, but for any of it to work the cycle of violence must stop within the home before any child may have any hope for an abuse free society. Child abuse is a topic that has many aspects and issues to discus. There are many causes for this problem that lead to adverse effects on the child and community. Treating this phenomenon needs major governmental, financial, educational, health care givers and social support and awareness. Also strict roles and disciplinary actions should be applied through the governments in order to control this problem. In my point of view the earlier abused children get help, the greater chance they have to heal from their abuse and not perpetuate the cycle. The Causes and Effects of Child Abuse The Causes and Effects of Child Abuse Day by day the safety and well being of some children across the nation are threatened by child abuse and neglect. Child abuse is doing harm to child intentionaly or not provides the essential needs for the child. Abuse child can be in physical, emotional, sexual in form or neglect. Each form has its different characteristics. Causes of child abuse can be parents causes, ecological causes or child problems. Parents causes involves parent who have background of emotional deprivation, unaware of difference between discipline and abuse, and isolated from the community. Teenage or single parent also can harm their children because they lack experience in raising children. Ecological causes which are related the environment surround the child. For example, poverty, overcrowding, substance abuse, and problems in marriage. Child causes include child disability and requirement of special needs. Child abuse has great impact on childs life, damaging a childà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s s elf esteem, ability to have healthy relationships, and ability to function at home, at work and at school. The Causes and Effects of Child Abuse Child abuse is one of the major issues that bring the attention of entire nation. Several organizations formed because it is not just an individual or familial problem. It takes different forms, physical or psychological maltreatment of children. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) define child abuse as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child (http://www.cdc.gov/violanceprevention/pdf/CM-FactSheet-a.pdf) The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) define child abuse and neglect as any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker who result in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation (What is Child Abuse and Neglect, 2008, para.2). Every year millions of children suffer from different type of child abuse. Most child abuse results from attempt to punish or control the child. Parents try to punish their children when they are doing something wrong and to avoid spoiling the child, but these attempts will increase to produce physical harm to the child. Therefore we have to distinguish between physical discipline and physical abuse. The most common way to distinguish physical punishment from abuse is by the presence or absence of physical injury. It is important to recognize that most parents do not want to beat their children. Virtually all parents feel regret after such an incident and most believe physical punishment is not an effective route to increase compliance, learning or respect for the parent (Durrant, 1996, p.186). In 2001, an estimated 3 million children were reported to state Child Protective Service (CPS) agencies as suspected victim of abuse and neglect. One million children were confirmed victim of maltreatment (physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, medical neglect, psychological abuse, other abuses), with another 4 million involved in referrals to Child Protective Services (National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information, 2003a;2003b). Three fourths of the perpetrators were caregivers, and an additional one tenth were relatives. However, only about one half of the child abuse and neglect report are investigated nationally, and on average only about one-third of the investigation find evidence of child abuse and neglect (Potts Mandleco, 2007, p 1208). Some people believe that the child abused by stringers only, but the truth that the child can be abused by parent, a friend of parent, neighbourhood, or even a family member. This essay paper on the causes and effects of child abuse will include types of child abuse and clinical manifestation can be seen in each type, causes and effects of child abuse. There are four forms of child abuse that is neglect, physical abuse, emotional abuse and sexual abuse. The most common form of child abuse is neglect. According to Longman dictionary neglect is pay insufficient attention to, or ignore . It means parents or caregivers fail to provide the important needs for their children. Neglecting the child can be noticed if the child lacks of hygiene, dresses clothes which is dirty, old, and inappropriate for age and weather, frequently absents from school, always sick and no medical assistance provided, malnourished and isolated from others. These signs of neglect are mostly observed by people who are always with close contact to child like the teacher, doctors, nurses and neighbours. They are frequently the ones who notice, suspect and report child neglect. Neglect has three forms which are physical neglect, emotional neglect and educational neglect. Physical neglect is the most abuse noticed among children. Physical neglect can be seen in many ways for example if the parent not provides supervision, repeat shuttling of child from one household to another for a day or week at a time, not providing adequate food for their children, clothes, house, not seeking medical care for a serious health problem or not giving the child his treatment. Emotional neglect includes inattention to childs need of affection and emotional support, expose child to extreme spousal abuse, permitting the child to use drugs and drink alcohol, refuse of medical assistance for child with psychological problems and applying high expectation that is inappropriate for childs age and level of development. Educational neglect can be if the parent refuses to enrol the child in school, failure to provide the essential learning needs and allow frequent absence from school. The second type of child abuse is physical abuse which is the most clear and has a huge physical effect on the child. Physical abuse should always be suspected when there is an injury that cannot be explained, or when the history provided is incongruous with the physical findings or the childs developmental level. Suspicion should also be aroused when the caregiver claims the injury was self-inflected, inflected by a sibling or when there is a delay in seeking medical services (Potts Mandleco,2007, p 1211). There are certain clinical manifestations can be observed in children who are abused physically which is unexplained bruises or welts that appear in various stages of healing often in clustered patterns that reflect the shapes of the articles used to inflict injury, unexplained burns especially on the soles, palms, back, or doughnut-shaped (on buttocks or genitals), unexplained fractures to the skull, nose, or facial structure; multiple or spiral fracture; or dislocations and num erous fracture in various stages of healing and bald patches on the scalp (Ashwill Droske, 1997, p 1287). A third type of child abuse is emotional abuse. Among all different child abuse, emotional abuse is the hardest type to identify. According to American Humane, Emotional abuse of a child is commonly defined as a pattern of behaviour by parents or caregivers that can seriously interfere with a childs cognitive, emotional, psychological, or social development (http://www.americanhumane.org/aboutus/newsroom/fact-sheets/emotional-abuse.html). Emotional abuse occur when parents ignoring and humiliating the child, isolating the child from the family, verbally assaulting the child, threatening the child, rejecting childs value and request, putting higher expectation on the child and exposing the child to family or community violence. The clinical manifestations which can be observed on a child who is emotionally abused are speech problems, lags in physical development, failure to thrive and hyperactive or disruptive behaviour. The last type of child abuse is sexual abuse which is the least frequently reported of child abuse. According to (Potts Mandleco,2007) Sexual abuse is defined as exploitive sexual act(s) imposed on a child who lacks the emotional, cognitive, or maturational development to deal with the actions (Giardino, Brown, Giardino, 2003). Sexual abuse can be in different ways which are pressuring the child to engage in sexual activities, exposing the child genitals, sexual contact with the child, incident exposure of genitals to a child, and physical contact to child genitals. Everybody believes that the girls are more often abused sexually, but the fact that both girls and boys are sexually abused. Studies have shown those sexual abuse victims are usually between 6 and 9 years of age. Ashwill made it clear that children will show some physical signs such as difficulty walking or sitting, torn, stained or bloody underclothing, pain, swelling or itching of genitals, pain on urination, bruises, bleeding or lacerations involving the external genitalia, vagina, or anal area and excessive masturbation (Ashwill Droske, 1997, p 1289). Understanding causes of child abuse is important to address the problem in order to prevent it. Specialists and experts who evaluated a bused childs environment and family background have come out with three causes for child abuse which are parental causes, ecological causes and child problems. Parental causes include parents who are very young and lack of experience of taking care for children are more likely to neglect childs need. For example; teenage parent or single parent never learned the skills necessary for good parenting. Although, parents who suffer many problems and they cannot control their anger which will inflict their children by abusing them physically. On the other hand, parents who were abused when they were children are more likely to abuse their own children too. It is like cycle of violence and abuse. Also, some parents raise their children same the way as they rose even if parents were abused. Some parents not differentiate discipline from abuse which lead to p hysically abuse their children in order to teach them the right things. Parents who physically abuse their spouses can also abuse their children. At same time, parents who suffer from mental disorder, anxiety or depression cannot take right decision for themselves, either for their children. Ecological causes involve abusing drug and alcohol by parents. Parents who are drunk they cannot think properly for the needs of their children. Also they are unrealistic in their behavior which can lead to abuse their children without even feeling that they are doing so. Some studies show that poverty play major role in abusing children. As the parents face financial difficulties, they cannot provide childs need. Also, those parents usually isolated and lack of social support. On the other hand, if couple have problem in their marriage that may inflict their children emotionally. Some parents are aware they are mistreating a child but are unable to stop. Other abusive parents literally hate children or are disgusted by them. The childs need, sloppiness, crying, or dirty diapers are unbearable to the parent. Abusive mothers tend to believe their children are intentionally annoying them. In many cases, troubled parents expect the child to love them and make them happy. When the child cannot meet such unrealistic demands, the parent react with lethal angry. Such parents are more likely to physically abuse their children (Coon, 2004, p 154). Child problems include handicapped children. Caring of child with special needs is difficult and need family and community support. Some parents ignore the needs for the child which lead to abusing childs rights. All types of child abuse regardless the causes; affect the child by some way. The effects of child abuse vary depending on the type of child abuse. Some of these effects are physical and other are emotional or psychological. Studies show that sexual and emotional abuse has the major impact on child. Effects can be classified to short term effects and long term effects. Short term effects can easily detect and the signs of abusing show in short period. For example; wound, burns or fracture that occur after physical abuse, which healed after seeking medical treatment. Child will show some sexual behaviors include sexual play with dolls. Child will be aggressive, fear of parents, fear to go home, and isolated from public. Child will fight to other student in class. Child may have difficulty in speech and cannot express feelings. Child who has been abused by his parent will not trust them to provide physical and emotional needs, which eventually lead to lack of trust to other people in the community. Long term effects are signs that difficult to detect at beginning of abusing incidents and will progress with the developmental process of the child which lead it to occur after long time. Almost it will occur in adult age if child did not seek medical assistance. For example; the adult will have difficulty to establish normal relationships with other. Adult survive from child abuse, can have unexplained signs of fear, anxiety and depression. Adult survivor of sexual abuse can abuse other children which is the cycle of abusing. Also the adult may suffer from sexual transmitted disease. The adult will have difficulty to express feeling, and may turn to substance abuse (alcohol or drugs). The adult may attempt to suicide. To sum up, child abuse is worldwide problem affecting children from birth to 18 years of age. There are different types for child abuse which is neglect, emotional abuse, physical abuse, and sexual abuse. There are three main causes for child abuse which is parent causes, ecological causes, and child problems. Based on causes many effects can be observed on the child which affect child emotionally, physically and social development. In my opinion detecting the early signs of abuse will end further harm to child, better chance for recovery, and appropriate treatment will be provided for the child. Since the family is the core of love and care for the child, it is important to bring their attention and highlight the causes and effects of child abuse, so they can play significant role in stopping the matter. Therefore, proper awareness of the community plays an important role in preventing this problem from going further.